{{coor title dm|33|6|N|44|6|E}}
:''For the Egyptian writer, see [[Abbas Al-Akkad]]. For the Syrian film director, see [[Moustapha Akkad]].
{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Akkad''' ([[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]: '''Agade'''; Biblical '''Accad'''), was a city and its surrounding region (Sumerian URI.[[𒆠|KI]] or ^KIURI) in central [[Mesopotamia]]. Akkad also became the capital of the '''Akkadian Empire''', and later that of the northern division of the ancient [[Babylonia]]n empire.<ref name="WebsterNinthNewCollege">Mish, Frederick C., Editor in Chief. “Akkad.” ''[[Webster's Dictionary#The Collegiate Dictionary|Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary]]''. 9^th ed. Springfield, MA: [[Merriam-Webster]] Inc., 1985. ISBN 0-87779-508-8, ISBN 0-87779-509-6 (indexed), and ISBN 0-87779-510-X (deluxe).</ref>

The city was probably situated on the west bank of the [[Euphrates]], between [[Sippar]] and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] (in present-day [[Iraq]], about {{km to mi|50|abbr=yes}} southwest of the center of [[Baghdad]]). Despite an extensive search, the precise site has never been found.

Akkad reached the height of its power between the [[24th century BC|24th]] and [[22nd century BC|22nd]] centuries BC, following the conquests of king [[Sargon of Akkad]].

Because of the policies of the Akkadian Empire toward linguistic assimilation, Akkad also gave its name to the predominant [[Semitic language|Semitic]] dialect: the [[Akkadian language]], reflecting use of ''akkadû'' ("in the language of Akkad") in the Old Babylonian period to denote the Semitic version of a [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] text.

==Origin of the Name==
[[Image:Akkadkings.jpg|450px|left|Royal Family of Akkad]]
The form ''Agade'' is Sumerian &mdash; appearing, for example, in the [[Sumerian king list]]; the later Assyro-Babylonian form ''Akkadû'' ("of or belonging to Akkad") was likely derived from this. It is possible that the Sumerian name, despite its unetymological spelling of ''A.GA.DÈ'', is from ''AGA.DÈ'', meaning "Crown of Fire"<ref name=crown>J. D. Prince, ''Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon'', pp. 23, 73, and ''Note on Akkad'', pp. 55-57, Journal of Biblical Literature, 1906.</ref> in allusion to [[Ishtar]], "the brilliant goddess", whose cult was observed from very early times in Agade. Centuries later, the neo-Babylonian king [[Nabonidus]] mentioned in his archaeological records<ref name=nabonidus>I. Rawl. 69, col. ii. 48 and iii. 28.</ref> that Ishtar worship in Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess [[Anunit]], whose shrine was at [[Sippar]]&mdash;suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. (There were actually two cities named Sippar&mdash;one under the protection of [[Shamash]], the sun-god, and the one under Anunit.) One theory holds that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was perhaps the oldest part of the city of Sippar. Another theory is that the ruins of Akkad are to be found beneath modern [[Baghdad]].

Despite numerous searches, the city has never been found. Reputedly it was destroyed by invading [[Gutians]] with the fall of the Akkadian Empire.

The city of Akkad is mentioned once in the [[Tanakh]] ([[Genesis]] 10:10). The [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[LXX]]) spelling is ''Archad''.
:''And the beginning of his ([[Nimrod (king)|Nimrod]]'s) kingdom was [[Babylon|Babel]], and [[Erech]], and Accad, and [[Calneh]], in the land of [[Shinar]]'' ([[KJV]]).

==History==
===Origins of Akkad===
[[Semites]] seem to be already present at the dawn of the historical record, and to have achieved preeminence with the first Dynasty of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] and numerous localities to the North of Sumer&mdash;where rulers with Semitic names had already established themselves by ca. the 3rd millennium BC. One of these, contemporary with the last Sumerian ruler, [[Lugal-Zage-Si]] of [[Uruk]], was Alusarsid (or Urumus) who ''"subdued [[Elam]] and Barahs (Barahsi?)"'' thus beginning the trend towards regional empire.

The first known mention of Akkad is in an inscription of [[Enshakushanna]] of [[Uruk]], where he claims to have defeated Agade, indicating that it was in existence before the days of [[Sargon of Akkad]].<ref> [http://books.google.com/books?id=hcdqKeIonWcC&pg=PA75&lpg=PA75&dq=enshakushanna+akkad&source=web&ots=7T1_FLH12r&sig=vq6rwZlDXoIABbePGGJfhL1GzWQ Cuneiform texts and the writing of history By Marc Van de Mieroop]</ref> Sargon was traditionally cited as the first ruler of a combined empire of Akkad and Sumer, although more recently discovered data suggests there had been Sumerian expansions under previous kings, including [[Lugal-Anne-Mundu]] of [[Adab]], [[Eannatum]] of [[Lagash]], and Lugal-Zage-Si.

====Sargon and his sons====
[[Image:Sargon of Akkad.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Mask believed to be of Sargon of Akkad]]The fame of the early establishers of Semitic supremacy was far eclipsed by that of [[Sargon of Akkad]] (''Sharru-kin'' = "legitimate king", probably a title he took on gaining power<ref>Gwendoyn Leick shows how this may also have been his birth or given name, as the name "Sharru-dan" has been found in inscriptions</ref>) ([[23rd century BC]]), who defeated and captured Lugal-Zage-Si, conquering his empire.

The earliest records in Akkadian all date to the time of Sargon. Sargon was claimed to be the son of La'ibum or Itti-Bel, a humble gardener, and possibly a [[hierodule]], prostitute, or [[priestess]] to [[Ishtar]] or [[Inanna]].

One legend related of Sargon in neo-Assyrian times says that ''"My mother was a changeling (?), my father I knew not. The brothers of my father loved the hills. My city is Azurpiranu (the wilderness herb fields), which is situated on the banks of the [[Euphrates]]. My changeling mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid. She cast me into the river which rose not over me. The river bore me up and carried me to Akki, the drawer of water. Akki, the drawer of water, took me as his son and reared me. Akki the drawer of water, appointed me as his gardener. While I was gardener Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and (fifty?) ... years I exercised kingship."''<ref>Roux, Georges (1982) "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin, Harmondsworth)</ref>

Originally a cupbearer to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa, Sargon thus became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. This gave him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa, the crown was set upon Sargon's head, and he entered upon a career of foreign conquest.<ref>Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963) "The Sumerians" (Chicago University Press)</ref> Four times he invaded [[Syria]] and [[Canaan]], and he spent three years thoroughly subduing the countries of "the west" to unite them with Mesopotamia "into a single empire."

However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create an empire that reached as far as the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[Anatolia]], and extending his rule to [[Elam]], and as far south as [[Magan]] ([[Oman]]), an area over which he reigned for 56 years. Trade extended from the [[silver]] mines of Anatolia to the [[lapis lazuli]] mines in [[Afghanistan]], the [[cedar]]s of [[Lebanon]] and the [[copper]] of Oman. This consolidation of the city-states of Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia. The empire's breadbasket was the rain-fed agricultural system of northern Mesopotamia and a chain of fortresses was built to control the imperial wheat production.

Images of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered lands. Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia ([[Subartu]]) were also subjugated and rebellions in Sumer were put down. [[Contract]] tablets have been found dated in the years of the campaigns against Canaan and against Sarlak, king of [[Gutian period|Gutium]].

Sargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to the Sumerian deities, particularly Inanna, his patroness, and Zababa, the warrior god of Kish. He called himself ''"The anointed priest of [[Anu]]"'' and ''"the great'' '''ensi''' ''of [[Enlil]]"'' and his daughter, [[Enheduanna]] the famous poet, was installed as priestess to [[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]] at the temple in [[Ur]].

He also boasted of having subjugated the "four quarters"&mdash;the lands surrounding Akkad to the north (Subartu), the south (Sumer), the east (Elam) and the west ([[Amorites|Martu]]). Some of the earliest texts credit him with rebuilding the city of Babylon (''Bab-ilu'') in a new location.

Troubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states ''"In his old age, all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad (the city)"''…but ''"he went forth to battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their vast army".'' Also shortly after, ''"the Subartu (mountainous tribes of) the upper country&mdash;in their turn attacked, but they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously".''

These difficulties broke out again in the reign of his sons. Revolts broke out during the 9-year reign of his son, [[Rimush (Akkad)|Rimush]], who fought hard to retain the empire&mdash;and in the fifteen year reign of Rimush's elder brother, [[Manishtushu]]. The latter king seems to have fought a sea battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him. Both appear to have been assassinated.

====Naram-Sin====

[[Naram-Sin]] (Beloved of Sin), Sargon's grandson, who assumed the imperial title of "King Naram-Sin, of the four quarters (''Lugal Naram-Sin, Šar kibrat 'arbaim'')", and, like his grandfather, was addressed as "the god (Sumerian = DIN.GIR, Akkadian = ''ilu'') of Agade" (Akkad), also faced revolts at the start of his reign.

Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of [[Ebla]] and ''Armani'' (also read ''Armanum'' or ''Armanim''). The [[Assyrians]], who are direct descendants of Akkadians, to this day refer to [[Armenia]]ns by the inscription form ''Armani''. They were located between Carchemish and Ebla. To better police this area, he built a royal residence at [[Tell Brak]], a crossroads at the heart of the Khabur basin of the [[Jezirah]]. Naram-Sin is supposed to have possessed an army of over 360,000 men, the largest size of any state up until that date. It enabled him to campaign against [[Magan]] (thought to be [[Oman]]) which also revolted; Naram-Sin, ''"marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king"''. The chief threat seemed to be coming from the northeastern mountaineers. A campaign against the [[Lullubi]] led to the carving of the famous stele, now in the [[Louvre]]. This newfound Akkadian wealth may have been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses and the confiscation of the wealth of other peoples.<ref>Burroughs, William J (2006)"Climate Change in Prehistory:th end of the reign of chaos" (Cambridge University Press)</ref>

The economy was highly planned. After the advancing Akkadian forces from [[Tell Brak]] took the massive (100 acre) site of [[Tell Leilan]], they destroyed nearby villages and brought the organisation of farming and grain distribution into its bureaucratic control. Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardised vessels made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing huge agricultural surpluses.<ref>Fagan, Brian (2004) "The Long Summer: how climate changed civilisation" (Granta Books)</ref>

[[Image:Stele Naram Sim Louvre Sb4.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Stele of [[Naram-Sin]], king of Akkad, celebrating his victory against the [[Lullubi]] from [[Zagros]]]]
In later Babylonian texts, the name ''Akkad'', together with ''Sumer'', appears as part of the royal title, as in the [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] [[LUGAL]] KI.EN.GIR^KI URU^KI or [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''Šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi'',<ref name=title>De Mieroop, Marc Van. (2005). ''A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000-323BC'', Malden: Blackwell Publishing.</ref> translating to "king of [[Sumer]] and Akkad". This title was assumed by the king who seized control of [[Nippur]],<ref name=Nippur>ibid</ref> the intellectual and religious center of southern [[Mesopotamia]].

During the Akkadian period, the [[Akkadian language]] was made official and enjoyed literary prestige equal to that of the [[Sumerian language]], that it eventually was to replace. The spread of Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam, and even the [[Elamite language]] was temporarily written in Mesopotamian [[cuneiform]]. Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] (in the [[Amarna period]]) and Anatolia, to [[Persia]] ([[Behistun]]).

===Collapse of Akkad===

Within 100 years the Empire of Akkad collapsed, almost as fast as it had developed, ushering in a [[Dark Ages in history|Dark Age]]. By the end of the reign of Naram-Sin's son, [[Shar-Kali-Sharri]], the empire collapsed outright from the invasion of barbarians of the [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]] known as "[[Gutian period|Gutians]]". It has recently been suggested<ref>[http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/cc110501.html "Collapse of the Bronze Age civilisations: has the smoking gun been found?"]<!--how serious is this?--></ref> that the [[Dark Age]] at the end of the Akkadian period (and [[First Intermediary Period]] of the [[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[Old Kingdom]]) was associated with rapidly increasing aridity, and failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, possibly produced by an [[asteroid impact]]or or a major [[volcanic eruption]].

The fall of the empire established by Sargon seems to have been as sudden as its rise, and little is known about the Gutian period. From the fall of Akkad until around [[2100 BC]], there is much that is still dark.

The [[Sumerian king list]], for the period after the death of Sharkalishari, states:

:''"Who was king? Who was not king? Igigi the king; Nanum, the king; Imi the king; Elulu, the king&mdash;the four of them were kings but reigned only three years. Dudu reigned 21 years; Shudurul, the son of Dudu, reigned 15 years. (A total of) 11 kings reigned 197 years. Agade was defeated and its kingship carried off to [[Uruk]]. In Uruk, Urnigin reigned 7 years, Irgigir, son of Urnigin, reigned 6 years; Kudda reigned 6 years; Puzur-ili reigned 5 years, Utu-utu reigned 6 years. Uruk was smitten with weapons and its kingship carried off by the Gutian hordes.''

(These kings of Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad.)

:''In the Gutian hordes, (first reigned) a nameless king; (then) Imta reigned 3 years as king; Shulme reigned 6 years; Elulumesh reigned 6 years; Inimbakesh reigned 5 years; Igeshuash reigned 6 years; Iarlagab reigned 15 years; Ibate reigned 3 years; .... reigned 3 years; Kurum reigned 1 year; .... reigned 3 years; .... reigned 2 years; Iararum reigned 2 years; Ibranum reigned 1 year; Hablum reigned 2 years; Puzur-Sin son of Hablum reigned 7 years; Iarlaganda reigned 7 years; .... reigned 7 years; .... reigned 40 days. Total 21 kings reigned 91 years, 40 days.''

Evidence from [[Tell Leilan]] in Northern Mesopotamia shows what may have happened. The site was abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its temple rebuilt and its grain production reorganised. The debris, dust and sand that followed show no trace of human activity. Soil samples show fine wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity, reduced rainfall and indications of a drier and windier climate. Evidence shows that skeleton-thin sheep and cattle died of drought, and up to 28,000 people abandoned the site, seeking wetter areas elsewhere. Tell Brak shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed. Nomadic herders such as the [[Amorite]]s moved herds closer to reliable water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with farmers. This climate-induced collapse seems to have affected the whole of the Middle East, and to have coincided with the collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom. A relatively well-known king from that period is [[Gudea]], king of Lagash.

This collapse of rain-fed agriculture in "the Upper Country" meant the loss to southern Mesopotamia of the agrarian subsidies which had kept the Akkadian Empire solvent. Water levels within the Tigris and Euphrates fell 1.5 metres beneath the level of 2600 BC, and although they stabilised for a time during the following Ur III period, rivalries between pastoralists and farmers increased. Attempts were undertaken to prevent the former from herding their flocks in agricultural lands, such as the building of a 180 km wall between the Tigris and Euphrates under the neo-Sumerian ruler [[Shu-Sin]]. Such attempts led to increased political instability; meanwhile, severe depopulation occurred to re-establish [[Demography|demographic equilibrium]] with the less favorable climatic conditions.

It has also been suggested (Burroughs, 2007) that the rapid climatic collapse, marking the Akkadian Dark Age, may have been responsible for the religiously prescribed prohibition against the raising and consumption of [[pig]]s that spread through the Ancient Middle East from the end of the third millennium BC.<ref>Burroughs, William J. (2007) "Climate Change in Prehistory: the end of the age of chaos" (Cambridge University Press)</ref>

The period between ca. [[2100 BC]] and [[2000 BC]] is sometimes called the [[3rd dynasty of Ur]] or "Sumerian Renaissance", founded by [[Ur-Nammu]] (originally a general). Though documents again began to be written in Sumerian, this dynasty may also have been Semitic; Sumerian was becoming a purely literary or liturgical language, much as Latin later would be in [[Medieval]] [[Europe]].

===The curse of Akkad===

Later material described how the fall of Akkad was due to Naram-Sin's attack upon the city of [[Nippur]]. When prompted by a pair of inauspicious [[oracle]]s, the king sacked the [[E-kur]] temple, supposedly protected by the god [[Enlil]], head of the [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]]. As a result of this, eight chief deities of the [[Anunaki]] pantheon were supposed to have come together and withdrawn their support from Akkad.<ref>[http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.2.1.5 Full translation in Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature]</ref>

<blockquote>
:For the first time since cities were built and founded,
:The great agricultural tracts produced no grain,
:The inundated tracts produced no fish,
:The irrigated orchards produced neither syrup nor wine,
:The gathered clouds did not rain, the masgurum did not grow.
:At that time, one shekel's worth of oil was only one-half quart,
:One shekel's worth of grain was only one-half quart. . . .
:These sold at such prices in the markets of all the cities!
:He who slept on the roof, died on the roof,
:He who slept in the house, had no burial,
:People were flailing at themselves from hunger.
</blockquote>

For many years, the events described in "The Curse of Akkad" were thought, like the details of Sargon's birth, to be purely fictional. But now the evidence of Tel Leilan, and recent findings of elevated dust deposits in sea-cores collected off Oman, that date to the period of Akkad's collapse suggest that [[climate change]] may have been the culprit.

==Government==

The Akkadian government formed a "classical standard" with which all future Mesopotamian states compared themselves. Traditionally, the ''ensi'' was the highest functionary of the [[Sumer]]ian [[city-state]]s. In later traditions, one became an ''ensi'' by marrying the goddess [[Inanna]], legitimising the rulership through divine consent.

Initially, the monarchial ''lugal'' (''lu'' = man, ''gal'' = great) was subordinate to the priestly ''ensi'', and was appointed at times of troubles, but by later dynastic times, it was the ''lugal'' who had emerged as the preeminent role, having his own ''"é"'' (= house) or "palace", independent from the temple establishment. By the time of [[Mesalim]], whichever dynast controlled the city of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] was recognised as ''šar kiššati'' (= king of Kish), and was considered preminent in Sumer, possibly because this was where the two rivers approached, and whoever controlled Kish ultimately controlled the irrigation systems of the other cities downstream.

As Sargon extended his conquest from the "Lower Sea" (= Persian Gulf), to the "Upper Sea" (= Mediterranean), it was felt that he ruled "the totality of the lands under heaven", or "from sunrise to sunset", as contemporary texts put it. Under Sargon, the ''ensi''s generally retained their positions, but were seen more as provincial governors. The title ''šar kiššati'' became recognised as meaning "lord of the universe".

One strategy adopted by both Sargon and Naram-Sin, to maintain control of the country, was to install their daughters, [[Enheduanna]] and [[Enmenanna]] respectively, as high [[priestess]] to Sin, the Akkadian version of the Sumerian moon deity, [[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]], at [[Ur]], in the extreme south of Sumer; to install sons as provincial ''ensi'' governors in strategic locations; and to marry their daughters to rulers of peripheral parts of the Empire (Urkush and Marhashe).

With Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson, this went further than with Sargon, with the king not only being called "Lord of the Four Quarters (of the Earth)", but also elevated to the ranks of the ''dingir'' (= gods), with his own temple establishment. Previously a ruler could, like [[Gilgamesh]], become divine after death but the Akkadian kings, from Naram-Sin onward, were considered gods on earth in their lifetimes. Their portraits showed them of larger size than mere mortals and at some distance from their retainers.<ref>Leick, Gwendolyn (2001) "Mesopotamia: Invention of the City" (Penguin Books)</ref>

==The Economy==

The population of Akkad, like all pre-modern states, was entirely dependent upon the agricultural systems of the region, that seem to have had two principal centres: the irrigated farmlands of southern Iraq that traditionally had a yield of 30 grains returned for each grain sown, making it more productive than modern farming; and the rain-fed agriculture of northern Iraq, known as ''"the Upper Country"''.

Southern Iraq during the Akkadian period seems to have been approaching its modern rainfall level of less than 20&nbsp;mm per year, with the result that agriculture was totally dependent upon irrigation. Prior to the Akkadian period the progressive [[salinity|salinisation]] of the soils, produced by poorly drained irrigation, had been reducing yields of [[wheat]] in the southern part of the country, leading to the conversion to more salt-tolerant [[barley]] growing. Urban populations there had peaked already by 2,600 BCE, and ecological pressures were high, contributing to the rise of militarism apparent immediately prior tothe Akkadian period (eg As seen in the stele of the vultures of [[Eannatum]]). Warfare between city states had led to a population decline, from which, temporarily Akkad provided a welcome respite<ref>Thompason, William J (2003), "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation" (in Journal of World Systems Research)</ref>. Nevertheless, it was this high degree of agricultural productivity in the south that enabled the growth of the highest population densities in the world at this time, giving Akkad its military advantage.

The [[water table]] in this region was very high and replenished every year by winter storms in the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates from October to March, and from snow-melt from March to July. Flood levels, that had been stable from about 3,000 to 2,600 BCE had staterted falling and by the Akkadian period were between half and one meter lower than that recorded previously. Even so, the flat country and weather uncertainties made flooding much more unpredictable than in the case of the Nile; serious deluges seem to have been a regular feature, requiring constant maintenance of irrigation ditches and drainage systems. Farmers were recruited into regiments for this work between August to October&mdash;a period of food shortage&mdash;under the control of city temple authorities, this acting as a form of unemployment relief. Some have suggested that this task for the king of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] was the original employment of Sargon and gave him his experience in being effectively capable of organising large groups of men; a tablet reads, ''"Sargon, the king, to whom Enlil permitted no rival&mdash;5,400 warriors ate bread daily before him"''.

Harvest was in the late spring and during the dry summer months. Nomadic [[Martu]] or [[Amorites]] from northwest would pasture their flocks of [[sheep]] and [[goat]]s to graze on the stubble and be watered from the river and irrigation canals. For this privilege nomad shepherds would have to pay a tax in wool, meat, milk, and cheese to the temples who would distribute these products to the bureaucracy and priesthood. In good years all would go well, but in bad years wild winter pastures would be in short supply, nomads would seek to pasture their flocks in the grain fields, and conflicts with farmers would result. In fact it would appear the subsidisation of southern populations by the import of wheat from the north of the Akkadian Empire, temporarily overcame this problem and it seems to have allowed economic recovery and a growing population within this region.

[[Image:Murex Rimush Louvre AO21404.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Murex]] bearing the name of [[Rimush]], king of Kish, ca. [[2270 BC]], [[Louvre]], traded from the Mediterranean coast where it was used by [[Canaanites]] to make a purple dye]]
As a result, Sumer and Akkad had a surplus of agricultural products, but was short of almost everything else, particularly metal ores, timber and building stone, all of which had to be imported. To some degree, the spread of the Akkadian state to the "silver mountain", the "cedars" of Lebanon, and to the copper deposits of [[Magan]] (modern [[Oman]]), seems to have been motivated by the opportunity to secure control over these imports. One tablet reads ''"Sargon, the king of Kish, triumphed in thirty-four battles (over the cities) up to the edge of the sea (and) destroyed their walls. He made the ships from [[Meluhha]] (the [[Indus civilization]]), the ships from Magan (and) the ships from [[Dilmun]] ([[Bahrein]]) tie up alongside the quay of Agade. Sargon the king prostrated himself before (the god) [[Dagan]] (and) made supplication to him; (and) he (Dagan) gave him the upper land, namely [[Mari]], [[Yarmuti]], (and) [[Ebla]], up to the Cedar Forest (and) up to the Silver Mountain".''

The location of the "Silver Mountain" is uncertain, but it is believed to have been in the [[Taurus Mountains]], in southern [[Anatolia]].

Inscriptions from much later tell of a campaign as far as [[Purushkanda]], believed to have been on one of the tributaries of [[Lake Beyşehir]]. The same inscription tells of securing the trade from Kaptara, believed to have been the Akkadian version of the location known to the Egypt|Egyptians as [[Keftiu]], and thought to have been [[Cyprus]] or the [[Minoan civilisation]] of [[Crete]], or both. This concern with trade may have led the Akkadian forces to attack Byblos, denying [[Ancient Egypt]] the cedars of Lebanon in the latter part of the Egyptian [[Sixth dynasty of Egypt|6th Dynasty]]&mdash;an important chronological correspondence between the two [[civilisation]]s.

==Culture==
===Art===
A ''bas relief'' representing Naram-Sin, and bearing a striking resemblance to early [[Art of ancient Egypt|Egyptian art]] in many of its features, has been found at [[Diarbekr]], in modern [[Turkey]]. [[Art and architecture of Babylonia and Assyria|Babylonian art]], however, had already attained a high degree of excellence; two cylinder seals of the time of Sargon are among the most beautiful specimens of the gem-cutter's art ever discovered.

===Poet - priestess Enheduanna===

Sumerian written literature achieved a high degree of excellence in the Akkadian period, principally in the work and example of '''[[Enheduanna]]'''. Enheduanna, the "wife (Sumerian ''"dam"'' = high priestess) of [[Nanna]] [the Sumerian moon god] and daughter of Sargon"<ref>Winter, Irene J. (1987), "Women in Public: The Disk of Enheduanna, The Beginning of the Office of En-Priestess, the Weight of the Visual Evidence." La Femme dans le Proche-Orient Antique. (Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations)</ref> of the temple of Sin at Ur, who lived ca. 2285-2250 BC, is the first [[poet]] in history whom we know by name. Her known works include hymns to the goddess [[Inanna]], the ''Exaltation of Inanna'' and ''In-nin sa-gur-ra''. A third work, the ''Temple Hymns'', a collection of specific hymns, addresses the sacred temples and their occupants, the deity to whom they were consecrated. The works of this poetess are significant, because although they start out using the third person, they shift to the first person voice of the poet herself, and they mark a significant development in the use of cuneiform. As poetess, princess, and priestess, she was a personality 'who set standards in all three of her roles for many succeeding centuries...', according to William W Hallo<ref>Enheduanna (1968), "The Exhaltation of Inanna." Trans. William W. Hallo and J.J.A. Van Dijk. (New Haven: Yale University Press).</ref>

In the ''Exultation of Inanna'',
:"Enheduanna depicts Inanna as disciplining mankind as a goddess of battle. She thereby unites the warlike Akkadian [[Ishtar]]'s qualities to those of the gentler Sumerian goddess of love and fecundity. She likens Inanna to a great storm bird who swoops down on the lesser gods and sends them fluttering off like surprised bats. Then, in probably the most interesting part of the hymn, Enheduanna herself steps forward in the first person to recite her own past glories, establishing her credibility, and explaining her present plight. She has been banished as high priestess from the temple in the city of Ur and from [[Uruk]] and exiled to the steppe. She begs the moon god Nanna to intercede for her because the city of [[Uruk]], under the ruler Lugalanne, has rebelled against Sargon. The rebel, Lugalanne, has even destroyed the temple Eanna, one of the greatest temples in the ancient world. Further, he has dared to equate himself as an equal to the new high priestess and--in the most ancient recorded instant of sexual harassment--made sexual advances to the high priestess, his sister-in-law."<ref>Binkley, Roberta, "The Importance of Enheduanna"</ref>

===Technology===

One tablet from this period reads, ''"(From the earliest days) no-one had made a statue of lead, (but) Rimush king of Kish, had a statue of himself made of lead. It stood before [[Enlil]]; and it recited his (Rimush's) virtues to the idu of the gods"''. Akkadian artists also discovered the ''"[[lost wax]]"'' method of bronze casting, previously believed to have been discovered much later, at the time of classical Greece.

===Achievements===
The empire was bound together by roads, along which there was a regular [[mail|postal service]]. Clay seals that took the place of stamps bear the names of Sargon and his son. A [[cadastral]] survey seems also to have been instituted, and one of the documents relating to it states that a certain Uru-Malik, whose name appears to indicate his [[Canaan]]ite origin, was governor of the land of the [[Amorites]], or ''Amurru'' as the semi-[[nomad]]ic people of Syria and Canaan were called in Akkadian. It is probable that the first collection of [[astronomy|astronomical]] observations and terrestrial omens was made for a library established by Sargon. The ''"[[limmu]]"'' calendrical system, used henceforth in Mesopotamian history, whereby which years were named by one significant event, and these were listed, also began in the Akkadian period.

== See also ==
* [[Babylonia and Assyria]]
* [[List of monarchies]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[[A. Leo Oppenheim]], ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization''

[[Category:Assyrian geography]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Akkadians]]
[[Category:Sumer]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Iraq]]
[[Category:Ancient cities]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities]]

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