Alchemy

{{Otheruses}}
In the [[history of science]], '''alchemy''' refers to both an early form of the investigation of [[Natural science|nature]] and an early [[philosophy|philosophical]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] discipline, both combining elements of [[chemistry]], [[metallurgy]], [[physics]], [[medicine]], [[astrology]], [[semiotics]], [[mysticism]], [[spiritualism]], and [[art]] all as parts of one greater force. Alchemy has been practiced in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Persia]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Chinese alchemy|China]], in [[Classical Antiquity|Classical]] [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], in the [[Islamic Golden Age|Muslim civilization]], and then in [[Europe]] up to the 19th century—in a complex [[Social network|network]] of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years.

[[Image:William Fettes Douglas - The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right|250px|"Renel the Alchemist", by Sir William Douglas, 1853]]

==Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline==
Alchemy was known as the ''spagyric art'' after Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together''. Compare this with the primary dictum of Alchemy in Latin: <small>SOLVE ET COAGULA</small> — ''Separate, and Join Together''.

The best known goals of the [[List of alchemists|alchemist]]s were the [[wiktionary:Transmutation|transmutation]] of common metals into [[gold]] (called [[chrysopoeia]]) or [[silver]] (less well known is plant alchemy, or "[[spagyric]]"); the creation of a "[[universal panacea|panacea]] or the elixir of life," a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely; and the discovery of a universal [[solvent]].<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/alchemy Alchemy as Dictionary.com]</ref> Although these were not the only uses for the science, they were the ones most documented and well known. Starting with the [[Middle Ages]], European alchemists invested much effort on the search for the "[[philosopher's stone]]", a legendary substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. The Philosophers Stone was believed to mystically amplify the user's knowledge of alchemy so much that anything was attainable. Alchemists enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries, though not for their pursuit of those goals, nor the mystic and philosophical speculation that dominates their literature. Rather it was for their mundane contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day—the invention of gunpowder, ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of ink, dyes, paints, and cosmetics, [[Tanning|leather tanning]], ceramics and glass manufacture, preparation of extracts and liquors, and so on (it seems that the preparation of ''[[aqua vitae]]'', the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists).

Starting with the Middle Ages, some alchemists increasingly came to view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy; and organic and inorganic chemical substances, physical states, and molecular material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states and ultimately, spiritual transformations. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true [[spiritual philosophy]], which being at odds with the Medieval Christian Church was a necessity that could have otherwise lead them to the "stake and rack" of the Inquisition under charges of heresy.<ref>{{cite book |last= Blavatsky |first= H.P. |title= [[The Secret Doctrine]] |publisher= Theosophical Publishing Company |year= 1888 |isbn= 978-1557000026 |pages=vol ii, 238 |url=http://www.phx-ult-lodge.org/SDVolume2.htm}}</ref> Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented some mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented some hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously "decoded" in order to discover their true meaning.

In his ''Alchemical Catechism'', [[Paracelsus]] clearly denotes that his usage of the metals was a symbol:

{{cquote|Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?
A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/alc/tschoudy.htm |title=Alchemical Catechism |accessdate=2007-04-18 |author=Paracelsus}}</ref>}}

===Alchemy and astrology===
Since its earliest times, alchemy has been closely connected to [[astrology]]—which, in the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] and Europe, generally meant the traditional [[Babylon]]ian-Greek school of astrology. Alchemical systems often postulated that each of the seven [[planet]]s known to the ancients "[[astrological sign|ruled]]" or was associated with certain metals. See the separate article on [[astrology and alchemy]] for further details. In [[Hermeticism]] it is linked with both astrology and [[theurgy]].

=== Psychology ===

[[Carl Jung]] saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of [[individuation]]; in his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which [[Gnosticism]] survived its various purges into the [[Renaissance]]. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to a [[Yoga]] of the [[West]]. Jung also interpreted [[Chinese alchemy|Chinese alchemical texts]] in terms of his [[analytical psychology]] as means to individuation. The act of Alchemy seemed to improve the mind and spirit of the Alchemist.

=== Magnum Opus ===

{{main|Magnum opus}}
''The Great Work''; mystic interpretation of its three stages:<ref> [http://www.e-scoala.ro/germana/mihai_stroe26.html Meyrink und das theomorphische Menschenbild]</ref>
*''nigredo(-putrefactio)'', blackening(-putrefaction): [[individuation]], purification, burnout of impureness; ''see also [[Suns_in_alchemy#Opus_Magnum|Suns in alchemy - Sol Niger]]
*''albedo'', whitening: spiritualisation, enlightenment
*''rubedo'', reddening: unification of man with god, unification of the limited with the unlimited.

Within the Magnum Opus, was the creation of the [[Sanctum Moleculae]], that is the 'Sacred Masses' that were derived from the [[Sacrum Particulae]], that is the 'Sacred Particles', needed to complete the process of achieving the Magnum Opus.

== Modern Alchemy ==

[[Alchemy_(Islam)|Islamic alchemy]] was a forerunner of modern scientific [[chemistry]]. Alchemists used many of the same laboratory tools that we use today. These tools were not usually sturdy or in good condition, especially during the medieval period of Europe. Many transmutation attempts failed when alchemists unwittingly made unstable chemicals. This was made worse by the unsafe conditions.

Up to the 16th Century, alchemy was considered serious science in Europe; for instance, [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his time and writing to the study of alchemy (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]) than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous. Other eminent alchemists of the [[Western world]] are [[Roger Bacon]], Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Thomas Browne]], and [[Parmigianino]]. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational [[materialism]].

In the first half of the nineteenth century, one established chemist, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], worked on concepts similar to the old alchemy, such as the [[Odic force]], but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.

Matter transmutation, the old goal of alchemy, enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert platinum atoms into gold atoms via a [[nuclear reaction]]. However, the new gold atoms, being unstable [[isotope]]s, lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart. More recently, reports of table-top element transmutation—by means of [[electrolysis]] or [[sonic cavitation]]—were the pivot of the [[cold fusion]] controversy of 1989. None of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated.

Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th century by [[psychology|psychologists]] and philosophers. [[Carl Jung]] reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a [[spirituality|spiritual]] path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in [[post-modernism|post-modern]] contexts, such as the [[New Age]] movement.

=== Alchemy in traditional medicine ===

Traditional medicines involve transmutation by alchemy, using pharmacological or combination pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In [[Chinese medicine]] the alchemical traditions of [[pao zhi]] will transform the nature of the temperature, taste, body part accessed or toxicity. In [[Ayurveda]] the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] are used to transform [[heavy metals]] and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. In the [[spagyric]] processing of [[Herbalism|herbal medicine]] similar effects are found.<ref>[http://oneearthherbs.squarespace.com/safety-regulation/ Tillotson, Alan; AHG, D.Ay., PhD "Safety and Regulation"]</ref> These processes are actively used to the present day.<ref>[http://www.planetherbs.com/articles/processing_chinese_herbs.htm Tierra, Michael; AHG, OMD, L.Ac. ''Processing Chinese Herbs'']</ref><ref>[http://www.herbalist-alchemist.com/benefits.htm "Benefits of Herbal Extracts"; herbalist-alchemist.com]</ref><ref>Junius, Manfred M; ''The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs''; Healing Arts Press 1985</ref>

=== Nuclear Transmutation ===

In 1919, [[Ernest Rutherford]] used [[artificial disintegration]] to convert [[nitrogen]] into [[oxygen]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.stmary.ws/physics/amsco_review_and_glencoe/chapter05.pdf |title= Reviewing Physics: The Physical Setting |author= Amsco School Publications |authorlink= http://worthyisthelamb.info/amsco/newtitles.html |format= |work= |publisher= Amsco School Publications |language= English |quote= "The first artificial transmutation of one element to another was performed by Rutherford in 1919. Rutherford bombarded nitrogen with energetic alpha particles that were moving fast enough to overcome the electric repulsion between themselves and the target nuclei. The alpha particles collided with, and were absorbed by, the nitrogen nuclei, and protons were ejected. In the process oxygen and hydrogen nuclei were created.}}</ref>

== Alchemy as a subject of historical research ==

The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure hermetic language of the alchemists is gradually being "deciphered", historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[kabbala|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements, [[cryptography]], [[witchcraft]], and the evolution of [[science]] and [[philosophy]].

=== History ===

{{main|Alchemy in history}}
[[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in [[astrology]] at the time.]]
Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships.

Famous alchemists include [[Wei Boyang]] in [[Chinese alchemy]]; [[Calid]], [[Geber]] and [[al-Razi|Rhazes]] in [[Alchemy (Islam)|Arabic alchemy]]; [[Nagarjuna]] in [[History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent|Indian alchemy]]; and [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[pseudo-Geber]] in European alchemy; as well as the anonymous author of the ''[[Mutus Liber]]'', published in France in the late 17th century, and which was a 'wordless book' that claimed to be a guide to making the [[philosopher's stone]], using a series of 15 symbols and illustrations.

=== Etymology ===

{{main|Chemistry (etymology)}}
The word ''chemistry'' comes from the earlier study of alchemy, which is basically the quest to make gold from earthen starting materials. As to the origin of the word “alchemy” the question is a debatable one, it certainly has Greek origins, and some, following [[E. A. Wallis Budge]], have also asserted Egyptian origins. Alchemy, generally, derives from the [[old French]] ''alkemie;'' and the Arabic ''al-kimia:'' "the art of transformation." Some scholars believe the Arabs borrowed the word “kimia” from the Greeks. Others, such as Mahdihassan,<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3064584&dopt=Abstract Mahdihassan S. "Alchemy, Chinese versus Greek, an etymological approach: a rejoinder"]</ref> argue that its origins are Chinese. A tentative outline is as follows:

#Egyptian alchemy [5000 BCE – 400 BCE], beginning of alchemy
#Greek alchemy [332 BCE – 642 CE], studied at the [[Library of Alexandria]]
#[[Chinese alchemy]] [142 CE], [[Wei Boyang]] writes ''[[The Kinship of the Three]]''
#[[History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent|Indian alchemy]] [200 CE – Present], related to [[metallurgy]]; [[Nagarjuna (metallurgist)|Nagarjuna]] was an important alchemist
#[[Alchemy (Islam)|Arabic alchemy]] [700 – 1400], [[Geber]] introduces [[Scientific method|experimental method]] and theories on [[philosopher's stone]] and [[Takwin|creation of life]]
#[[Alchemy (Islam)|Arabic chemistry]] [800 – Present], [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]] and [[Avicenna]] refute alchemy and [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī|Tusi]] discovers [[conservation of mass]]
#European alchemy [1300 – Present], Saint [[Albertus Magnus]] builds on Arabic alchemy
#European chemistry [1661 – Present], [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]] writes ''The Sceptical Chymist'', [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] writes ''Elements of Chemistry'', and [[John Dalton|Dalton]] publishes his ''Atomic Theory''

Thus, an alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".

A connection has been made between alchemy and [[Egypt]]. One source in particular gives further background into the probable founding of the name itself in the following passage:
"...The concept is a very ancient one, which seems to answer to deep human motivations. It came to [[Medieval Europe]] by way of Egypt. When they invaded [[Egypt]], which they called [[Khem]], in the [[seventh century]], the followers of the moon god discovered that the Egyptians were masters of the art of working in [[gold]]. They called gold-working ''al-kimiya'' - 'the art of the land of Khem' - and so, according to one account, the word 'alchemy' was born."<ref>Mysteries of Mind, Space & Time - The Unexplained, Volume 1; Published by H.S. Stuttman, Inc. © Orbis Publishing Limited 1992, Westport, Connecticut.</ref>

== See also ==

{{MultiCol|95%}}
===Other alchemical pages===
*[[Alchemical symbol]]
*[[Alchemy in art and entertainment]]
*[[Alembic]]
*[[Alkahest]]
*[[Astrology and alchemy]]
*[[Berith]]
*[[Jakob Boehme]]
*[[Circle with a point at its centre]]
*[[Duality]]
*[[Elixir of life]]
*[[Emerald Tablet]]
*[[Robert Fludd]]
*[[Humorism|Four Humors]]
*[[Goldwasser|Gold water]]
*[[Hermeticism]]
*[[Homunculus]]
*[[Ethan Allen Hitchcock]]
*[[Carl Jung]]
*[[Michael Maier]]
*[[Musaeum Hermeticum]]
*[[Paracelsus]]
*[[Philosopher's stone]]
*[[Quintessence]]
*[[Herbert Silberer]]
*[[Vulcan of the alchemists]]

===Other resources===
*[[List of alchemists]]
*[[List of magical terms and traditions]]
*[[List of occultists]]
{{ColBreak}}

===Related and alternative philosophies===
*[[Western mystery tradition]]
*[[Internal alchemy]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Necromancy]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[magick]]
*[[Esotericism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], [[Illuminati]]
*[[Taoism]] and the [[Five Elements]]
*[[Asemic]] Writing
*[[Kayaku-Jutsu]]
*[[Acupuncture]], [[moxibustion]], [[ayurveda]], [[homeopathy]]
*[[Anthroposophy]]
*[[Psychology]] and [[Carl Jung]]
*[[New Age]]
*[[Tay al-Ard]]

===Substances of the alchemists===
*[[lead]] • [[tin]] • [[iron]] • [[copper]] • [[mercury (element)|mercury]] • [[silver]] • [[gold]]
*[[phosphorus]] • [[sulfur]] • [[arsenic]] • [[antimony]]
*[[vitriol]] • [[cinnabar]] • [[pyrites]] • [[orpiment]] • [[galena]]
*[[magnesium oxide|magnesia]] • [[calcium oxide|lime]] • [[potash]] • [[natron]] • [[saltpetre]] • [[kohl (cosmetics)|kohl]]
*[[ammonia]] • [[ammonium chloride]] • [[alcohol]] • [[camphor]]
*Acids: [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] • [[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]] • [[nitric acid|nitric]] • [[acetic acid|acetic]] • [[formic acid|formic]] • [[citric acid|citric]]• [[tartaric acid|tartaric]]
*[[aqua regia]] • [[gunpowder]]
*[[carmot]]

===Scientific connections===
*[[Chemistry]]
*[[Physics]]
*[[Scientific method]]
*[[Protoscience]], [[Pseudoscience]], and [[Anti-science]]
*[[Obsolete scientific theories]]
*[[Historicism]]

{{EndMultiCol}}

===Alchemy in Fiction===
Alchemy is used in the manga and the anime [[Fullmetal Alchemist]] in which the primary characters, two brothers who can use alchemy search for the Philosopher's Stone.

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*Cavendish, Richard, The Black Arts, Perigee Books
*{{cite book | author=Gettgins, Fred | title=Encyclopedia of the Occult | location=London | publisher=Rider | year=1986 | id= }}
*{{cite book | author=Greenberg, Adele Droblas | title=Chemical History Tour, Picturing Chemistry from Alchemy to Modern Molecular Science | publisher=Wiley-Interscience | year=2000 | isbn=0-471-35408-2 }}
*{{cite book | author=Hart-Davis, Adam | title=Why does a ball bounce? 101 Questions that you never thought of asking | location=New York | publisher=Firefly Books | year=2003 }}
*{{cite book | author=Marius | title=On the Elements | location=Berkeley | publisher=[[University of California Press]] | year=1976 | isbn=0-520-02856-2 }} Trans. Richard Dales.
*{{cite book | author=Weaver, Jefferson Hane | title=The World of Physics | location=New York | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1987 | id= }}
*{{cite book | author=Zumdahl, Steven S. | title=Chemistry | location=Lexington, Maryland | publisher=[[D.C. Heath and Company]] | year=1989 | isbn=0-669-16708-8 | edition=2nd ed. }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons|Alchemy}}










* [http://www.levity.com/alchemy/index.html The Alchemy website] - Alchemy from a metaphysical perspective.
* [http://www.al-kemi.org The al-kemi.org website] - Alchemy from a spiritual/philosophical perspective.
* [http://www.ambix.org/ Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy
* [http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/martinon/index.html ''Antiquity'', Vol. 77 (2003)] - "A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab".
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14218 The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry], Muir, M. M. Pattison (1913)
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/01/science/01alch.html?ex=1312084800&en=4445e5f8f9c7b3c0&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss "Transforming the Alchemists"], [[New York Times]], [[August 1]], [[2006]]. [[Historical revisionism]] and alchemy.
* [http://www.revistaazogue.com/biblio.htm#N_3_ Electronic library] with some 350 alchemical books (15th- and 20th-century)

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