Andrei_Sakharov

{{for|the historian|Andrey Nikolayevich Sakharov}}
{{Infobox Scientist
|name = Andrei Sakharov<br/>Андрей Сахаров [[Image:Nobel Prize.png|20px]]
|box_width = 300px
|image = Sakharov 1943.jpg
|image_width = 160px
|caption = Andrei Sakharov, 1943
|birth_date = [[May 21]], [[1921]]
|birth_place = [[Moscow]], [[USSR]]
|death_date = [[December 14]], [[1989]]
|death_place = [[Moscow]], [[USSR]]
|residence =
|citizenship = [[Soviet Union|USSR]]
|nationality =
|ethnicity = [[Russians|Russian]]
|field =
|work_institutions =
|alma_mater = [[FIAN]]
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students =
|known_for = [[Nuclear physics|nuclear]] [[physicist]], [[dissident]], [[human rights]] activist.
|author_abbrev_bot =
|author_abbrev_zoo =
|influences =
|influenced =
|prizes = [[Hero of Socialist Labor]] (1953, 1955, 1962), [[Stalin Prize]] (1953), [[Lenin Prize]] (1956), [[Nobel Peace Prize]] ([[1975]])
|religion =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov''' ({{lang-ru|Андре́й Дми́триевич Са́харов}}) ([[May 21]] [[1921]] – [[December 14]] [[1989]]) was an eminent [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Nuclear physics|nuclear]] [[physicist]], [[dissident]] and [[human rights]] activist. Sakharov was an advocate of [[civil liberties]] and reforms in the Soviet Union. He was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1975]].

==Life and career==
Sakharov was born in [[Moscow]] on [[May 21]], [[1921]]. His father was Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, a private school physics teacher and an amateur [[pianist]]. Dmitri's grandfather Ivan had been a prominent lawyer in [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russia]] who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanist principles (including advocating the abolition of [[Capital punishment in Russia|capital punishment]]) that would later influence his grandson. Sakharov's mother was Ëkaterina Alekseyevna Sakharova (''née'' Sofiano and of [[Greece|Greek]] ancestry). His parents and his paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped Sakharov's personality. Although his paternal great-grandfather had been a priest in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and his pious mother did have him [[Baptism|baptised]], his father was an [[Atheism|atheist]] and religion did not play an important role in his life, though he did believe that a non-scientific "guiding principle" governed the universe and human life.<ref name="drell">Drell, Sidney D., and Sergei P. Kapitsa (eds.), ''Sakharov Remembered'', pp. 3, 92. New York: Springer, 1991.</ref>

Sakharov entered [[Moscow State University]] in 1938. Following evacuation in 1941 during the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War]], he graduated in [[Aşgabat]], in today's [[Turkmenistan]]. He was then assigned laboratory work in [[Ulyanovsk]]. During this period, in 1943, he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva, with whom he raised two daughters and a son before she died in 1969.<ref name="drell" /> He returned to Moscow in 1945 to study at the Theoretical Department of [[Lebedev Physical Institute|FIAN]] (the Physical Institute of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences|Soviet Academy of Sciences]]). He received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in 1947.

[[Image:1958 Sakharov Kurchatov.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Andrei Sakharov (left) and [[Igor Kurchatov]], 1958]]
On [[World War II]]'s end, Sakharov researched [[cosmic ray]]s. In mid-1948 he participated in the [[Soviet atomic bomb project]] under [[Igor Kurchatov]]. The first Soviet atomic device was tested on [[August 29]], [[1949]]. After moving to [[Sarov]] in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the next stage, the development of the [[hydrogen bomb]]. The first Soviet fusion device was tested on [[August 12]], [[1953]], using what was called the [[Sloika]] design. In 1953, he received his [[Doctor of Science|D.Sc.]] degree, was elected a full member of the [[Russian Academy of Science|Soviet Academy of Sciences]], and was awarded the first of his three [[Hero of Socialist Labor]] titles. Sakharov continued to work at Sarov, playing a key role in the development of the first megaton-range Soviet hydrogen bomb using a design known as "Sakharov's Third Idea" in Russia and the [[Teller-Ulam design]] in the United States. It was first tested as [[RDS-37]] in 1955. A larger variation of the same design which Sakharov worked on was the 50MT [[Tsar Bomba]] of October 1961, which was the most powerful device ever exploded.

He also proposed an idea for a controlled [[nuclear fusion]] reactor, the [[tokamak]], which is still the basis for the majority of work in the area. Sakharov, in association with [[Igor Tamm]], proposed confining extremely hot ionized [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] by [[torus]] shaped [[magnetic field]]s for controlling [[thermonuclear fusion]] that led to the development of the tokamak device.

Sakharov proposed the idea of [[induced gravity]] as an alternative theory of [[quantum gravity]].

===Turn to activism===
From the late-1950s Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the 1960s, Sakharov was against [[nuclear proliferation]]. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the 1963 [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], signed in Moscow. In 1965 he returned to fundamental science and began working on [[physical cosmology|cosmology]] but continued to oppose political discrimination.

The major turn in Sakharov’s political evolution started in 1967, when [[anti-ballistic missile]] defense became a key issue in US–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of [[July 21]], [[1967]], Sakharov explains the need to "''take the Americans at their word''" and accept their proposal "for a bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense", because otherwise an arms race in this new technology would increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript (which accompanied the letter) in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by this kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABM in the Soviet press.

[[Image:C0474-NN-Sakharov-house.jpg|thumb|The apartment building in the Scherbinki neighborhood of Nizhny Novgorod where A.D. Sakharov lived in exile 1980-85. His apartment is now a museum.]]
In May 1968 he completed an essay, ''Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom'', where the anti-ballistic missile defense is featured as a major threat of world nuclear war. After this essay was circulated in [[samizdat]] and then published outside the Soviet Union, Sakharov was banned from all military-related research and Sakharov returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics. In 1970 he, along with [[Valery Chalidze]] and [[Andrei Tverdokhlebov]], was one of the founders of the [[Moscow Human Rights Committee]] and came under increasing pressure from the regime. He married a fellow human rights activist, [[Yelena Bonner]], in 1972.

In 1973 he was nominated for the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] and in 1974 was awarded the [[Prix mondial Cino Del Duca]]. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1975, although he was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect it. His wife read his speech at the acceptance ceremony.

Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works he declared that "the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally", denying the importance and validity of all moral or cultural norms not codified in the laws. He was arrested on [[January 22]] [[1980]], following his public protests against the [[Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan]] in 1979 and was sent to [[internal exile]] in the city of [[Nizhny Novgorod|Gorky]], now [[Nizhny Novgorod]], a [[closed city]] that was inaccessible to foreign observers.

Between 1980 to 1986, Sakharov was kept under tight Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs he mentions that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. He remained isolated but unrepentant until December 1986 when he was allowed to return to Moscow as [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] initiated the policies of [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]].

[[Image:BonnerAndSakharovAndKallistratova1986.jpg|thumb|L-to-R: [[Elena Bonner|E.Bonner]], A.Sakharov, [[Sofia Kalistratova|S.Kalistratova]], 1986]]
In 1988 Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]].

He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In March 1989, Sakharov was elected to the new parliament, the [[Congress of People's Deputies|All-Union Congress of People's Deputies]] and co-led the democratic opposition.

Soon after 9:00 pm on December 14, 1989, Sakharov went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress. His wife went to wake him at 11:00 pm as he had requested but she found Sakharov dead on the floor. A sudden [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] had taken his life at the age of 68.<ref>Coleman, Fred, ''The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Empire: Forty Years That Shook the World, from Stalin to Yeltsin'', p. 116. New York: St. Martin's, 1997.</ref> He was interred in the [[Vostryakovskoye Cemetery]] in Moscow.

==Influence==
The [[Sakharov Prize]], established in [[1985]] and awarded annually by the [[European Parliament]] for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, was named in his honor.

An [[Andrei Sakharov prize (APS)|Andrei Sakharov prize]] is also to be awarded by the [[American Physical Society]] every second year from [[2006]], "to recognize outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights".

==Andrei Sakharov Archives ==
The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center, established at [[Brandeis University]] in 1993, are now housed at [[Harvard University]].<ref name="Arc">[http://www.brandeis.edu/departments/sakharov/ Harvard University. KGB file of Sakharov]</ref>
The documents from that archive were published by the [[Yale University Press]] in 2005.<ref name="SakharovBook">The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov. (edited by Joshua Rubenstein and Alexander Gribanov), New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005; ISBN 0300106815</ref> These documents are available online.<ref name="bookonline">[http://www.yale.edu/annals/sakharov/sakharov_list.htm The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov], online version with original texts and the English translations in English and in Russian (text version in [[Windows-1251]] [[character encoding]] and the pictures of the original pages).</ref>
Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of the [[KGB]] to the [[Central Committee]] about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers. The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 ([[Brezhnev stagnation]]). The documents characterize not only the Sakharov's activity, but that of other dissidents, as well as that of highest-position [[apparatchik]]s, and the KGB. No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available.

==Legacy and remembrance==

; Places
* In [[Moscow]], there is Sakharov Boulevard, Sakharov Museum, and Sakharov Center.
* During the 1980s, the block of 16th Street NW between L and M streets, in front of the Soviet embassy, in [[Washington, D.C.]] was renamed "Andrei Sakharov Place" as a form of protest against his 1980 arrest and detention.
[[Image:Andrei Sakharov-IMG 0887-raffi kojian.JPG|thumb|Statue of Andrei Sakharov in Sakharov Square in [[Yerevan]], [[Armenia]].]]
* In [[Yerevan]], the capital of former-Soviet [[Armenia]], Sakharov Square, located in the heart of the city, is named after him.
* The [[Sakharov Gardens]] (est. 1990) are located at the entrance to [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]], off the Jerusalem–Tel Aviv Highway.<ref>{{ru icon}} [http://www.sakharov-center.ru/museum/exhibitionhall/sadi-s.htm Photo exhibition "Sakharov Gardens"] (sakharov-center.ru)</ref>
* In [[Nizhny Novgorod]], there is Sakharov Museum in the apartment on the first floor of 12-storeyed house where the Sakharov family lived for seven years.
* In [[St. Petersburg]], his monument stands in Sakharov Square, and there is a Sakharov Park.
* In 1979, an [[asteroid]] —[[1979 Sakharov]]—was named after him.

; In fiction
*Sakharov and the "Sakharov Drive" were mentioned in [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. The drive is not described in detail and the principles on which it is based (presumably imagined by Sakharov) are not given.
*Sakharov is mentioned briefly in [[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s [[Timequake]].
*One of the [[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D)|Enterprise-D]] shuttlecraft in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' is named for him.

==Quotes==
* "In this pamphlet, advanced for discussion by its readers, the author has set himself the goal to present, with the greatest conviction and frankness, two theses that are supported by many people in the world. These are:
*# The division of mankind threatens it with destruction… Only universal cooperation under conditions of intellectual freedom and the lofty moral ideals of socialism and labor, accompanied by the elimination of dogmatism and pressure of the concealed interests of ruling classes, will preserve civilization…
*# The second basic thesis is that intellectual freedom is essential to human society — freedom to obtain and distribute information, freedom for open-minded and unfearing debate and freedom from pressure by officialdom and prejudices. Such a trinity of freedom of thought is the only guarantee against an infection of people by mass myths, which, in the hands of treacherous hypocrites and demagogues, can be transformed into bloody dictatorship. Freedom of thought is the only guarantee of the feasibility of a scientific democratic approach to politics, economics and culture." (''Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom'', in ''[[The New York Times]], [[July 22]], [[1968]]) [http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/essay.htm]
* "I foresee a universal information system (UIS), which will give everyone access at any given moment to the contents of any book that has ever been published or any magazine or any fact. The UIS will have individual miniature-computer terminals, central control points for the flood of information, and communication channels incorporating thousands of artificial communications from satellites, cables, and laser lines. Even the partial realization of the UIS will profoundly affect every person, his leisure activities, and his intellectual and artistic development. …But the true historic role of the UIS will be to break down the barriers to the exchange of information among countries and people." (Saturday Review/World, [[August 24]], [[1974]])<ref name = "AIP">[http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/humrt.htm The human rights movement, 1969-1979].</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Sakharov, Andrei, ''Facets of a Life''. 1991.
* Babyonyshev, Alexander, ''On Sakharov''. New York, 1982.
* Lozansky, Edward D., ''Andrei Sakharov and Peace''. 1985.
* Drell, Sidney D., and Sergei P. Kapitsa (eds.), ''Sahkarov Remembered''. 1991
* Gorelik, Gennady, with Antonina W. Bouis, ''The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom''. Oxford University Press, 2005

==See also==
*[[Sergei Kovalev]]
*[[Natan Sharansky]]
*[[Edward Teller]]
*[[Stanisław Marcin Ulam]]

==External links==

{{commonscat|Andrei Sakharov}}
*{{cite web
| author =
| year =
| url =http://web.archive.org/web/20030120121555/http://www.brandeis.edu/departments/sakharov/Exhibit/amalrik.html
| title =Faces of Resistance in the USSR, The Andrei Sakharov Archives Homepage (Archived webpage)
| format =
| work =
| publisher =Brandeis University
| accessmonthday=April 17
| accessyear =2006
}}
*{{cite journal
| first =Benjamin
| last =Nathans
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year =2003
| month =August 8
| title =A vital record of human rights history is in danger
| journal =International Herald Tribune
| volume =
| issue =
| pages =
| id =
| url =http://www.chechentimes.org/en/comments/?id=9640
}} The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center, established at Brandeis University in 1993, will soon cease to exist unless Congress and university officials act to save it.
*{{cite journal
| first =Ken
| last =Gewertz
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year =
| month =
| title =Bonner points to still-powerful KGB Former Soviet dissidents say that present-day Russia shows little improvement over dark days of old regime
| journal =Harvard News Office
| volume =
| issue =
| pages =
| id =
| url =http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/09-sakharov.html
}} Commemoration of the Sakharov Archives transfer to Harvard.
*[http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/index.htm Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights]. Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics.
*[http://people.bu.edu/gorelik/AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chrono/AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chronology.html Andrei Sakharov: Photo-chronology]
*"''[http://www.nobel-winners.com/Peace/sakharov.html Andrey Dmitriyevich Sakharov]''". Timeline of Nobel Winners.
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/interview/holloway18.html David Holloway on: Andrei Sakharov].
*[http://www.wiriworlds.com/Michael/sakharov/ Andrei Sakharov Museum in Moscow Virtual Tour].
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Sakharov,+Andrei Annotated bibliography of Andrei Sakharov from the Alsos Digital Library].
*[http://lnfm1.sai.msu.ru/SETI/eng/articles/sakharov.html Sakharov and SETI].
*[http://www.sakharov-archive.ru/ Sakharov Archive (Russian)]
*[http://www.sakharov-center.ru/ Sakharov Museum and Public Center: Peace, Progress and Human Rights (Russian)]

{{Nobel Peace Prize Laureates 1951-1975}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sakharov, Andrei}}
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:Russian physicists]]
[[Category:Soviet nuclear program]]
[[Category:Anti-nuclear weapons activists]]
[[Category:Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Soviet dissidents]]
[[Category:Soviet physicists]]
[[Category:Nuclear physicists]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates]]
[[Category:Russian Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:Russian inventors]]
[[Category:Moscow State University alumni]]
[[Category:Stalin Prize winners]]
[[Category:Heroes of Socialist Labor]]
[[Category:Russian anti-communists]]

[[be-x-old:Андрэй Сахараў]]

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[[cs:Andrej Dmitrijevič Sacharov]]
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[[el:Αντρέι Ζαχάρωφ]]
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[[id:Andrei Sakharov]]
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[[he:אנדריי סחרוב]]
[[ka:ანდრეი სახაროვი]]
[[la:Andreas Sacharov]]
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[[no:Andrej Sakharov]]
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[[ru:Сахаров, Андрей Дмитриевич]]
[[simple:Andrei Sakharov]]
[[sk:Andrej Dmitrijevič Sacharov]]
[[sl:Andrej Dimitrijevič Saharov]]
[[fi:Andrei Saharov]]
[[sv:Andrej Sacharov]]
[[vi:Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov]]
[[tr:Andrey Saharov]]
[[uk:Сахаров Андрій Дмитрович]]
[[zh:安德烈·德米特里耶维奇·萨哈罗夫]]