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[[Image:HPIM0158.JPG|thumb|200px|[[7th millennium BC]] anthropomorphized rocks, with slits for eyes, found in modern-day [[Israel]]. ]]
[[Image:Universeface.jpg|thumb|150px|An anthropomorphic character; a cat ascribed human characteristics.]]

'''Anthropomorphism''' is the attribution of uniquely [[human]] characteristics and qualities to nonhuman beings, inanimate objects, or natural or supernatural phenomena. [[Animal]]s, forces of [[nature]], games, and unseen or unknown sources of chance are frequent subjects of anthropomorphism. The term is derived from two [[Greek language|Greek]] words, ἄνθρωπος (''anthrōpos''), meaning ''human'', and μορφή (''morphē''), meaning ''shape'' or ''form''. The suffix '-ism' originates from the [[morpheme]] -ισμός or -ισμα in the Greek language.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

It is a common and seemingly natural tendency for humans to perceive nonhuman animals or inanimate objects as having human characteristics, one which some suggest provides a window into the way in which humans perceive themselves. Common examples of this tendency include naming cars or begging machines to work.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

It is also probably true that humans have a natural tendency to deny common traits with other species, most particularly apes, feeling that humans are unique and "special." This tendency may be described as anthropomorphophobia and has been referred to as '''Anthropodenial''' by primatologist [[Frans de Waal]], author of ''Our Inner Ape'' and other books and articles.

==In religions and mythologies==

In [[religion]] and [[mythology]], anthropomorphism refers to the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, or the recognition of human qualities in these beings. Many mythologies are almost entirely concerned with anthropomorphic [[deity|deities]] who express human characteristics such as [[jealousy]], [[hatred]], or [[love]]. The [[family tree of the Greek gods|Greek gods]], such as [[Zeus]] and [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], were often depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits. Anthropomorphism in this case is sometimes referred to as [[Anthropotheism]].

===In Biblical literalism===
Numerous [[sect]]s throughout history have been called ''anthropomorphites'' attributing such things as hands and eyes to God, including a sect in [[Egypt]] in the [[4th century]], and a group in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in the [[10th century]], who literally interpreted [[Genesis]] chapter 1, verse 27: "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them."<ref name="1728Cyclopedia">{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech000900240147&isize=L Anthropomorphite].</ref>

===In Hinduism===
The ten [[avatar]]s of the [[Hindu]] supreme god [[Vishnu]] possess both human and divine forms and qualities, although their degrees of divinity vary. In [[Vaishnavism]], a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faith, Vishnu is [[omniscience|omniscient]] and [[benevolence|benevolent]], in contrast to gods of the [[Ancient Greek Religion|Greek]] and [[Roman religion|Roman]] religions. See [[God in Hinduism]].

===Opposition to anthropomorphism===
Many religions and philosophies have condemned anthropomorphism for various reasons. Some [[Greek philosophy|Ancient Greek philosophers]] did not approve of, and were often hostile to their people's mythology. These philosophers often developed monotheistic views. [[Plato]]'s (427&ndash;347 [[Common Era|BCE]]) [[Demiurge]] (craftsman) in the ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and [[Aristotle|Aristotle's]] (384&ndash;322 BCE) [[Cosmological argument|prime mover]] in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' are notable examples. The Greek philosopher [[Xenophanes]] (570&ndash;480 BCE) said that "the greatest god" resembles man "neither in form nor in mind." ([[Clement of Alexandria]], ''Miscellanies'' V xiv 109.1-3). The similarity of these philosophers' concepts of god to the concepts found in the [[Bible]] facilitated the incorporation of much pre-Christian Greek philosophy into the [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] Christian [[world view]] by the [[Scholasticism|Scholastics]], most notably [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Anthropomorphism of God is condemned by [[Islam]], since Muslims feel that God is beyond human limits of physical comprehension. This conception is also championed by the doctrinal view of [[Nirguna Brahman]].

From the perspective of adherents of religions in which the deity or deities have human characteristics, it may be more accurate to describe the [[phenomenon]] as [[theomorphism]], or the giving of divine qualities to humans, rather than anthropomorphism, the giving of human qualities to the divine. According to their beliefs, the deity or deities usually existed before humans, therefore humans were created in the form of the divine. However, for those who do not believe in the doctrine of the religion, the phenomenon can be considered anthropomorphism. In fact, Stewart Elliott Guthrie, in his book ''Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion'' (1993), theorizes that all religions are simply anthropomorphisms that originate in the human brain's tendency to over-detect the presence or vestiges of other humans in the natural world.

Interestingly, [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson|Charles Dodgson's]] novel [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]] was [[list of banned books|banned]] in [[Hunan]] because "animals should not use human language" and it "put animals and human beings on the same level."

==In literature==
{{main|Personification}}

[[Image:Peter Rabbit - Benjamin and Flopsy Bunny - Project Gutenberg eText 14220.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Anthropomorphic rabbit characters created by [[Beatrix Potter]]]]
Anthropomorphism is a well-established device in literature. Aesop's Fables, a collection of short tales written or recorded by the ancient Greek citizen [[Aesop]], make extensive use of anthropomorphism, in which animals and [[weather]] illustrate simple moral lessons. The Indian books ''[[Panchatantra]]'' (The Five principles) and ''[[The Jataka tales]]'' employ anthropomorphized animals to illustrate various principles of life.

Anthropomorphism is commonly employed in books for children, such as those by [[Lewis Carroll]], [[Roald Dahl]], [[Brian Jacques]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and [[Beatrix Potter]]. [[W.V. Awdry|Rev. W. Awdry's]] [[The Railway Series|Railway Series]] depicts steam locomotives and diesel locomotives with human-like faces and personalities, which lead to the popular television series [[Thomas the Tank Engine]]. A particularly famous example from [[Edwardian]] England, with an enduring appeal, is [[The Wind in the Willows]] by [[Kenneth Graham]], with the characters of Rat, Mole, Badger, Toad and the Weasels.

However, anthropomorphism is not exclusively used as a device in children's literature: [[Terry Pratchett]] is notable for having several anthropomorphic characters in his ''[[Discworld]]'' series, the best-known of which is the character [[Death (Discworld)|Death]]. [[Piers Anthony]] also wrote a series regarding the seven [[Incarnations of Immortality]], which are [[Characters from the Incarnations of Immortality|Death, Time, Fate, War, Nature, Evil, and Good]]. [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics/Vertigo)|Sandman]]'' series anthropomorphizes seven aspects of the living experience: [[Destiny (DC Comics)|Destiny]], [[Death (DC Comics)|Death]], [[Dream (DC Comics)|Dream]], [[Destruction (DC Comics)|Destruction]], [[Desire (DC Comics)|Desire]], [[Despair (DC Comics)|Despair]], and [[Delirium (DC Comics)|Delirium]]. Perhaps most famously, [[George Orwell]] converted several key actors in the [[Russian Revolution]] into anthropomorphic animals in his satire ''[[Animal Farm]]''. These are only a few examples; anthropomorphism is not an uncommon device in adult literature.

== In fiction and popular culture ==

Because anthropomorphism is well-established as a device in literature, it naturally also lends itself well in fiction (particularly science fiction) and popular culture. The most common way of anthropomorphise non-humans in science fiction is to create alien races and machines with human attributes. The [[Kilrathi]], a vicious, warlike alien race of anthropomorphic felines from the ''Wing Commander'' series, as well as the Wookiees (most notably [[Chewbacca]]) and Ewoks from ''[[Star Wars]]'', are examples of such alien races. In the novelization of the ''Terminator'' series, the supercomputer [[Skynet (fictional)|Skynet]] is often described as having human emotions, including anger, paranoia, and fear. A further extension of this can be found in the final scene of ''[[Terminator 3]]'', the T-X Terminator, Skynet's latest and most lethal creation, clearly displayed fear in "her" facial expression before being destroyed. Of course, many of the droids found in the ''Star Wars'' series, particularly [[C-3P0]] and [[R2-D2]], are also anthropomorphic. C-3P0 and R2-D2 are particularly notable because they are capable of human emotions and became close companions of the main characters in both trilogies, as well as being referred to by human pronouciation of their names, "Threepio" and "Artoo", respectively.

A unique form of anthropomorphism in science fiction is presented by ''[[Warhammer 40,000]]'', in which many of the machines operated by the [[Imperium of Man]] are believed to have a "Machine Spirit" residing in them (similar to the Japanese concept of "kami"), be it something as simple as a lasgun or a massive battleship. When a machine is disabled, typically for centuries, the Machine Spirit is said to be dormant. This belief is strongly preached by the Adeptus Mechanicus, or the Machine Cult. It is the responsibility of the Techpriests to "appease" the Machine Spirits through routine maintenance and "give tribunes" in lubricants and spare parts. The Space Marine Land Raider is even said to have a powerful and active Machine Spirit which allows the tank to move and fire after the crew is killed (in reality, artificial intelligence, which the Imperium branded and banned as "abominable intelligence"). The anthropomorphism of machines in ''Warhammer 40,000'' is evident in ''[[Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War: Winter Assault|Winter Assault]]'', where General Sturnn comments on the repairs on the Titan as it being "nursed back to health".

Perhaps the most famous example of anthropomorphized machines is found in ''[[The Transformers (TV series)|Transformers]]'', where the robots of both [[Autobots]] and [[Decepticons]] are anthropomorphic machines in both their robot forms and their disguised forms. They even hold to human ideals, both good and evil: the Autobots, led by [[Optimus Prime]], believes in protection of the weak and that "freedom is the right of all sentient beings", where the Decepticons, led by [[Megatron]] believes that only the strong deserves to survive and strives for complete domination over those they deem inferior.

In addition to sci-fi aliens and robots, today's animated films and TV series also follow classic anthropomorphism in anthropomorphizing animals. In the ''[[Shrek]]'' trilogy, the Donkey is an anthropomorphic donkey who is a close companion of Shrek, and introduced in the second film is Puss in Boots, an anthropomorphic cat assassin who joins Shrek. Also, ''[[Chicken Run]]'' and ''[[Over the Hedge (film)|Over the Hedge]]'' are films that feature predominately anthropomorphic animals as main characters. Many of the characters in ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'', such as Leonardo, Donatello, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Splinter are also anthropomorphic animals. More recently, the animated series ''[[Happy Tree Friends]]'' also features anthropomorphic animals, all engaging in normal human activities before being killed in either tragic accidents which suddenly happens, or murdered by Flippy, a war-veteran bear suffering from an extreme case of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.

Many advertisements, on TV or otherwise, often employ anthropomorphism, ranging from anthropomorphized animals and objects to the anthropomorphic version of the products being advertised. Notable examples of anthropomorphism in advertisements include the [[GEICO]] gecko (mascot of GEICO), and Frank and Gordon, the beaver mascots for [[Bell Canada]].

==In technical fields==
{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}

[[Image:HONDA ASIMO.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|[[ASIMO]], an anthropomorphic robot created by Honda]]

[[Hacker]]s and [[programmers]] are known to anthropomorphize technology, mostly as a time-saving metaphorical device. Complex technology, specifically [[computers]], can exhibit complicated behaviors that can be lengthy to describe in purely inanimate terms. (Note that describing computer systems as having behaviors may itself be considered a kind of anthropomorphism). Therefore, hackers may use human actions and emotions to describe the behavior of a computer system. For example, if a program encounters minor errors but can still accomplish its task, it may do so but send the user an error message. Especially in instances where the error encountered is considered trivial, a hacker might describe the computer as "complaining." This human action (complaining) conveys that there is a difficulty, while acknowledging the trivial nature of the difficulty, and perhaps the fact that the program did what was required despite the difficulty.

Anthropomorphism particularly affects the field of robotics, especially in instances of [[robot]]s that are given human forms.

See the [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/anthropomorphization.html section on ''anthropomorphism''] in the [[Jargon File]] for more information, including the self-referentially hackish joke on the topic "Don't anthropomorphize computers: they hate that".

This form of anthropomorphism is also common in other technical fields. For example, a [[chemist]] might casually explain a [[covalent bond]] between [[carbon]] and [[hydrogen]] by asserting that the carbon atom "shares" electrons with the hydrogen atom, although the chemist knows that atoms are incapable of the human connotative meaning of sharing. A similar example in biology is the [[selfish gene theory]].

Similarly, in [[finance]], a [[financial market]] that rises and falls might be described as "fickle." However, because it is a process made possible by humans, and directly effected by human actions (particularly reactions to market forces), the market is theoretically capable of reflecting human emotions. If the criterion for anthropomorphism is that the subject is ascribed human attributes it does not have, financial markets and other demographic forces may not qualify. However, they might be considered true personifications of human emotion, and qualify much like the personification of desire.

===In artificial intelligence===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
The study and development of [[artificial intelligence]] identifies the tendency to see human characteristics in inanimate objects as potentially more significant, especially as [[computer]]s begin to reach the point at which they can recognize spoken language. Some computers display very specific and specialized categories of simulated human behaviour, such as learning from mistakes, anticipating input, playing [[chess]] and other games which require human-like intelligence.

==In rhetoric and logical reasoning==
{{Unreferencedsection|date=October 2007}}
Anthropomorphism in the form of [[personification]] consists of creating imaginary persons who are the embodiment of an abstract concept such as [[lust]], [[war]], or [[Death (personification)|death]]. This is common in many mythologies, of which the best known are [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology|Roman]], and fantasy fiction.

See [[Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]

In classical [[rhetoric]], personification is a [[figure of speech]], or more specifically, a [[Trope (literature)|trope]], that employs the deliberate use of anthropomorphism, usually in attempt to make an emotional appeal. In rhetorical theory, a distinction is often drawn between personification (anthropomorphism of inanimate, but real, objects) and figures such as [[Apostrophe (figure of speech)|apostrophe]], in which an absent people or abstract concepts are addressed.

'''An example of rhetorical personification:'''
{{quotation|A tree whose hungry mouth is prest<br/>Against the earth's sweet-flowing breast.|[[Joyce Kilmer]], ''Trees''}}

'''An example of rhetorical apostrophe:'''
{{quotation|O eloquent, just, and mighty Death!|[[Walter Raleigh]], ''History of the World''}}

Using anthropomorphized [[caricature]]s or projecting human qualities on conceptual entities or inanimate objects in [[reasoning]] is also known as committing a [[pathetic fallacy]] (in logical reasoning, this is not a [[pejorative]] term).

==See also==

{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
* [[Android science]]
* [[Animal cognition]]
* [[Anthropocentrism]]
* [[Anthropopathy]]
* [[Cognitive ethology]]
* [[Figure of speech]]
* [[Furry Fandom]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Humanoid]]
* [[Kemono]]
* [[List of anthropomorphic personifications]]
* [[Louis Wain]]
* [[Moé anthropomorphism]]
* [[National personification]]
* [[OS-tan]]
{{col-3}}
* [[Pathetic fallacy]]
* [[Rhetoric]]
* [[Talking animal]]
* [[Uncanny Valley]]
* [[Zoomorphism]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Shipley, Orby. ed. ''A glossary of ecclesiastical terms''. 1872.

==External links==
{{wiktionary|Anthropomorphism|Anthropomorphism}}
*[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/anthropomorphism.html Anthropomorphism at The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight]

[[Category:Anthropomorphism]]
[[Category:Furry]]
[[Category:Literary devices playing with meaning]]

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